Seasons of Sound: How Music and Nature Harmonize with Health

Music is not just an art form, but a tool for regulating emotions and activating the brain, which can benefit mental, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular health. 

Listening to seasonal music can evoke feelings tied to the changing environment—joy in spring, relaxation in summer, reflection in autumn, and introspection in winter. These responses help reduce stress, improve mood, and enhance overall well-being. Excerpts from Vivaldi’s “Four Seasons” was shown to have a positive effect on older adults’ cognitive performance.  Bach, Mozart, Handel, Haydn and others have been successively used in music therapy. Music was even shown to effectively improve the social skills and language communication ability of children with autism, and enhance their behavioral ability, sensory perception, and self-care skills.

Individuals with hearing loss or cochlear implants may experience music differently. The richness of music may be diminished due to difficulties hearing pitch and harmony. However, rhythm and tempo still provide valuable cues, allowing them to connect with the music, even if their experience is more limited.

Seasonal music, especially when tailored to individual needs, could be useful in hearing rehabilitation and mental health therapy. For instance, soothing winter compositions with slower tempos might promote relaxation and calmness, benefiting people with anxiety or stress, even those with hearing impairments.

Many composers have created music centered around the seasons, each interpreting these sensory experiences in unique ways. Vivaldi’s The Four Seasons is perhaps the most well-known, using lively, bright melodies to capture the essence of spring and intense, dramatic passages for winter. Similarly, Piazzolla’s The Four Seasons of Buenos Aires reflects the sultry and passionate atmosphere of Buenos Aires in summer through tango rhythms. Here's more: 

Jacques Loussier: He created a jazz interpretation of Vivaldi’s "The Four Seasons".

Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Wrote “The Seasons”, Op. 37a, a set of twelve piano pieces each representing a different month of the year.

Alexander Glazunov: Composed the ballet “The Seasons”, Op. 67, which is divided into four scenes, each representing a different season.

John Cage: Composed “The Seasons”, a ballet score that represents the four seasons.

Leonid Desyatnikov: Arranged Piazzolla’s “Las Cuatro Estaciones Porteñas” for violin and string orchestra, blending elements of tango and classical music.

Franz Joseph Haydn composed “The Seasons” (Die Jahreszeiten), a large oratorio for soloists, chorus, and orchestra. It was completed in 1801 and is divided into four parts, each representing a different season of the year.

as we already mentioned:

Ástor Piazzolla: Composed “Las Cuatro Estaciones Porteñas” (The Four Seasons of Buenos Aires), which are tango compositions reflecting the seasons in Buenos Aires.

and, of course,

Antonio Vivaldi: Famous for his set of violin concertos known as “The Four Seasons”, Op. 8, Nos. 1-4.

Despite the different styles and periods of these composers, there are some common musical characteristics and emotional themes associated with each season in their works:

Spring

Tempo: Often lively and upbeat, reflecting the renewal and energy of spring.

Emotions: Joy, hope, and freshness.

Musical Characteristics: Light, bright melodies, often with a sense of awakening or blossoming. Vivaldi’s “Spring” from The Four Seasons is a prime example with its cheerful and vibrant violin passages.

Summer

Tempo: Can vary from slow and languid to fast and intense, reflecting both the heat and the storms of summer.

Emotions: Warmth, relaxation, but also intensity and sometimes agitation.

Musical Characteristics: Rich, full textures, sometimes with stormy or dramatic elements. Piazzolla’s “Verano Porteño” (Summer) captures the sultry heat of Buenos Aires with its passionate tango rhythms.

Autumn

Tempo: Often moderate, with a mix of lively harvest dances and more reflective, slower sections.

Emotions: Gratitude, nostalgia, and sometimes melancholy.

Musical Characteristics: Warm, earthy tones, often incorporating folk dance rhythms. Haydn’s “Autumn” in The Seasons includes lively harvest celebrations and reflective moments.

Winter

Tempo: Generally slower, though can include brisk, biting sections to reflect the cold.

Emotions: Stillness, introspection, and sometimes harshness.

Musical Characteristics: Sparse, crisp textures, often with a sense of chill or stark beauty. Tchaikovsky’s “January: By the Fireside” from The Seasons evokes the warmth and coziness of being indoors during winter.

Each composer brings their unique style to these themes, but the general emotional and musical characteristics of the seasons tend to be consistent. Using music from different seasons to reflect diverse emotional states can help in training users to identify shifts in mood and energy, enhancing their social and emotional perception.

REFERENCES

Pryer AJ. Vivaldi's Four Seasons and the Globalization of Musical Taste. https://research.gold.ac.uk/id/eprint/110/1/MUS-Pryer2002a_GRO.pdf

Mammarella N, Fairfield B, Cornoldi C. Does music enhance cognitive performance in healthy older adults? The Vivaldi effect. Aging clinical and experimental research. 2007 Oct;19:394-9.

Baltes FR, Miclea M, Miu AC. Does everybody like Vivaldi's Four Seasons? Affective space and a comparison of music-induced emotions between musicians and non-musicians. Cognition, Brain, Behavior. 2012 Mar 1;16(1):107.

Bavandi A, Ashrafi M, Mohammadzadeh A. A Descriptive Study on the Effect of Music on Speech-in-Noise Perception in Binaural and Monaural Hearing Aid Users. Indian Journal of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery. 2024 Aug 27:1-7.

Mei L. The role of teaching solfeggio considering memory mechanisms in developing musical memory and hearing of music school students. Current Psychology. 2024 Mar;43(11):10005-15.

Brian C. J. Moore The perception of emotion in music by people with hearing loss and people with cochlear implants 15 July 2024 https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2023.0258

Shi Z, Wang S, Chen M, Hu A, Long Q, Lee Y. The effect of music therapy on language communication and social skills in children with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology. 2024 May 7;15:1336421.

Tinnitus and Sound predictability

Tinnitus, often described as ringing or buzzing in the ears, is a complex condition that affects millions worldwide. It is primarily diagnosed based on self-reported symptoms. However, it can also be a diagnosis of exclusion, as it may sometimes be caused by an underlying condition. In many cases, the exact cause remains elusive.

A comprehensive hearing (audiological) exam is crucial in assessing tinnitus. This typically includes Pure Tone Audiometry that evaluates hearing thresholds and identifies any hearing loss associated with tinnitus. It also helps describe the characteristics of tinnitus, such as loudness and pitch.

Different types of tinnitus sounds can provide clues about potential causes:

Clicking: May indicate muscle contractions in or around the ears

Pulsing, rushing, or humming: Could stem from vascular causes, such as high blood pressure

Low-pitched ringing: Might suggest ear canal blockages, Menière's disease, or otosclerosis

High-pitched ringing: Often associated with loud noise exposure, hearing loss, or certain medications

Continuous, high-pitched ringing in one ear: Could indicate acoustic neuroma

Additional diagnostic tools may include Lab tests - to check for anemia, thyroid problems, heart disease, or vitamin deficiencies and Imaging - CT scans or MRIs to identify structural abnormalities in the ear

A recent study from the Netherlands explored how tinnitus affects auditory processing, specifically focusing on sensory gating (SG) and predictability in sound perception.

Imaging: CT scans or MRIs of the ear can identify structural abnormalities.

Study Design:

Participants: 52 age-, education-, and sex-matched individuals with and without tinnitus

Task: Listening to paired-tone oddball sequences varying in pitch (standard vs. deviant) and timing (isochronous vs. random)

Measurement: 128-channel EEG recording

Analysis: Temporal spatial principal component analysis (tsPCA)

Both groups demonstrated sensory gating, suppressing responses to the second tone in a pair.

Deviant tones elicited larger amplitudes than standard tones in both groups.

Only participants without tinnitus showed an enhanced N100-like deviance response in the isochronous (predictable) timing condition compared to the random timing condition.

The study suggests that individuals with tinnitus may not benefit from temporal predictability in sound processing to the same extent as those without tinnitus. This indicates a potential deficit in temporal sensitivity in auditory processing for people with tinnitus.

Understanding tinnitus involves exploring its various manifestations, potential causes, and the underlying differences in auditory processing. While diagnosis primarily relies on self-reported symptoms, comprehensive audiological exams and additional tests can provide valuable insights. Recent research highlights the complex nature of tinnitus and its impact on sound perception, opening avenues for future studies and potential therapeutic approaches.

REFERENCE

Brinkmann P, Devos JVP, van der Eerden JHM, Smit JV, Janssen MLF, Kotz SA, Schwartze M. Parallel EEG assessment of different sound predictability levels in tinnitus. Hear Res. 2024 Jul 6;450:109073. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2024.109073. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 38996530.

Genomic Therapy Restores Hearing in Children

Imagine a world where children born deaf can hear for the first time. This once far-fetched dream is becoming a reality thanks to a recent breakthrough in genomic therapy. A new study published in Nature Medicine reports promising results from an innovative gene therapy designed to treat autosomal recessive deafness 9 (DFNB9). 

DFNB9 is a genetic condition that leads to severe-to-complete hearing loss from birth or early childhood. It's caused by mutations in the OTOF gene, which encodes a crucial protein called otoferlin necessary for hearing. Without functional otoferlin, sound signals cannot be properly transmitted to the brain, resulting in deafness.

Researchers have been exploring gene therapy as a way to treat genetic disorders like DFNB9. In this approach, a healthy copy of the defective gene is delivered to the patient's cells using a viral vector. In previous studies, a single injection of an adeno-associated virus (AAV) carrying the human OTOF gene showed safety and some hearing improvement in one ear.

Building on this success, the researchers expanded their trial to test the therapy in both ears (binaural therapy) in children with DFNB9. Their latest paper presents interim results from this ongoing study.

Five children with DFNB9 who never received cochlear implants participated in the trial. Each received the gene therapy in both ears. The primary goals were to evaluate safety and to observe any improvements in hearing. Here’s what they found:

Safety: No serious adverse events or dose-limiting toxicities were reported. Out of 36 minor adverse events, the most common were increased lymphocyte counts and cholesterol levels, both manageable.

Efficacy: Remarkably, all five children showed significant improvement in hearing. Before therapy, their average auditory brainstem response thresholds were greater than 95 dB, indicating profound hearing loss. After therapy, these thresholds improved dramatically. For example:

Patient 1: Improved to 58 dB and 63 dB in the right and left ears, respectively.

Patient 2: Improved to 75 dB and 85 dB.

Patients 3, 4, and 5 showed similar improvements.

Beyond these quantitative measures, qualitative improvements were equally striking. All five children gained the ability to perceive speech and locate sounds. Here are some inspiring individual stories:

Patient 1: An 11-year-old girl, deaf since birth, began responding to her name and recognizing sounds within weeks. By 13 weeks, she could speak simple syllables like "ba" (father) and "ma" (mother).

Patient 2: This child, who couldn’t hear at all initially, could turn to his grandparents' calls within six weeks and started saying words like "ayi" (aunt) and "bai" (bye) by 26 weeks.

Patient 3: Similarly, this patient began responding to his name within three weeks and could dance to music and say words like "baba" (father) and "yeye" (grandfather) by 26 weeks.

This study offers a glimmer of hope for the 430 million people worldwide who suffer from disabling hearing loss, including 34 million children. Approximately 26 million people have congenital hearing loss, with 60% of these cases due to genetic factors like DFNB9.

While these interim results are promising, the trial is ongoing, and longer follow-up is needed to confirm the therapy's long-term safety and efficacy. If successful, this gene therapy could revolutionize the treatment of genetic hearing loss, offering a new lease on life for countless individuals.

For more details, you can check the trial registration at the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry: ChiCTR2200063181.

REFERENCE

Wang, H., Chen, Y., Lv, J. et al. Bilateral gene therapy in children with autosomal recessive deafness 9: single-arm trial results. Nat Med (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03023-5

SARS-CoV-2 Lurking in the Middle Ear

From the common rhinovirus to infamous coronavirus, respiratory viruses can trigger a cascade of ear complications, including acute otitis media (AOM). This roster includes syncytial virus, rhinovirus, adenovirus, coronavirus, bocavirus, influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, enterovirus, human metapneumovirus and SARS-Cov2. Moreover, Otitis media can often manifest as the initial sign of COVID-19 and be associated with hearing loss. Otitis media secretory is one of the most common ear complications after infection with the Omicron strain of SARS-CoV-2 virus, and the significantly higher incidence is associated with middle ear viral infection. Middle ear effusion SARS-CoV-2 virus antigen test detected the virus, which survived longer in the middle ear effusion than in the nasal cavity. The middle ear effusion test can detect SARS-CoV-2 virus antigen and determine whether the organism contains virus residue. 

Recent findings have unveiled a potentially alarming revelation - individuals diagnosed with otitis media with effusion (OME) post-COVID-19 may harbor traces of the virus within their middle ear. In this study, a striking 12.0% of middle ear effusion samples tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, hinting at the possibility of viral persistence and recurrence.

The study examined 23 patients, ranging from 32 to 84 years of age, who presented with OME following Omicron infection. 91.3% of these patients showcased unilateral symptoms, with fluid accumulation observed in 88.0% of ears. The median duration from infection to middle ear effusion sampling was 21 days, showcasing the potential for prolonged viral presence in this concealed reservoir.

Adding to the intrigue is the elusive nature of OME itself. Characterized by fluid accumulation in the middle ear sans acute infection, OME has long puzzled experts in otolaryngology and audiology. While bacterial infections and immunological responses have been implicated, the precise mechanisms remain veiled in mystery.

REFERENCES

Chengzhou Han, Huifang Wang, Ying Wang, Chao Hang, Yangyang Wang, Xiangming Meng, The silent reservoir? SARS-CoV-2 detection in the middle ear effusion of patients with Otitis media with effusion after omicron infection, American Journal of Otolaryngology, 2024, 104229, ISSN 0196-0709, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjoto.2024.104229. 

Zhang Y, Liu J, Yang F, He Y, Yan S, Bai Y, Zhang Z, Luan F. COVID-19-related secretory otitis media in the omicron era: a case series. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2023 Oct;280(10):4697-4700. doi: 10.1007/s00405-023-08075-w. Epub 2023 Jun 21. PMID: 37341758.

Fan Y, Gao R, Shang Y, Tian X, Zhao Y, Chen X. Presence of SARS-CoV-2 in middle ear fluid and characterization of otitis media with effusion in patients with COVID-19. International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2023 Nov 1;136:44-8.

Karimi-Galougahi M, Raad N, Ghorbani J, Mikaniki N, Haseli S. Otitis Media in COVID-19: A Case Series. Authorea Preprints. 2020 Jul 7.

Gene Therapy Rescues Childhood Deafness

Gene therapy, a revolutionary medical technique first conceptualized in the 1980s, has steadily advanced, offering new hope in treating various genetic disorders. This approach involves altering a person’s genetic makeup to combat diseases, representing a significant shift from traditional methods like drugs or surgery. 

Gene therapy faces challenges, including immune reactions, targeting errors, and the risk of new mutations. But in many cases benefits outweigh the risks.

A recent milestone in gene therapy has been its application in treating inherited hearing loss. The focus is on DFNB9, a form of deafness caused by mutations in the OTOF gene, responsible for producing otoferlin, a crucial protein in sound signal transmission. This leads to nonsyndromic Hearing Loss - a hearing loss that occurs with no other symptoms. A collaborative clinical trial between Chinese researchers and Mass Eye and Ear investigators has yielded remarkable results.

The trial involved six children with autosomal recessive deafness (DFNB9), all between one and seven years old. The gene therapy entailed injecting a functional OTOF gene using viral carriers into the inner ear. This process enabled the cells to produce otoferlin, thereby restoring hearing capabilities.

Over 26 weeks, five of the six children showed significant hearing improvements, with abilities ranging from understanding speech to verbalizing words, even holding phone conversations. 

This success paves the way for addressing other genetic forms of deafness involving genes like GJB2, MYO15A, TMC1, or SLC26A4. These genes play various roles in the inner ear's development and function, and researchers are diligently working to develop targeted gene therapies for these conditions.

Gene therapy, once a concept, is now transforming lives. As research continues, it holds the promise of curing not just deafness but a spectrum of genetic disorders, marking a new era in medical science.

REFERENCE

Qi J, Tan F, Zhang L, Lu L, Zhang S, Zhai Y, Lu Y, Qian X, Dong W, Zhou Y, Zhang Z, Yang X, Jiang L, Yu C, Liu J, Chen T, Wu L, Tan C, Sun S, Song H, Shu Y, Xu L, Gao X, Li H, Chai R. AAV‐Mediated Gene Therapy Restores Hearing in Patients with DFNB9 Deafness. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2024 Jan 8:e2306788. doi: 10.1002/advs.202306788. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 38189623.

Music in the Streaming Age

In the grand tapestry of human evolution, our sense of hearing has played a pivotal role in our survival and cultural development. Over time, our hearing has evolved in response to environmental cues and the intricate dance of language and communication. This journey has left its imprint on the very structure of our inner ears and the regions of our brains responsible for language processing. 

As our societies grew in complexity, so did our music. It was evolving from simple and rhythmic, to intricate compositions of classical music and avant-garde, experimental, serialist, highly spatialized music. It was changing from danceable to complex and dissonant rhythms. Some complex music was very popular - such as psychedelic rock band Pink Floyd; other not so much - such as Karlheinz Stockhausen's compositions. Modern music was incorporating elements of many other genres - eg alternative rock: punk rock, heavy metal, and experimental music and even simpler Hip Hop: jazz, funk, and soul. The most popular music was not always simplest but was more accessible.

In the 2020s, the world of music experienced a seismic shift with the rise of streaming platforms like Spotify, Tencent, and Apple Music. The impact was profound, not only revitalizing the music industry's revenue but also redefining the very essence of music itself.

Traditionally, music was a patient storyteller, often taking its time to build up to a climactic chorus or hook. Yet, the economics of streaming introduced a new imperative – capturing the listener's attention within the first 30 seconds. Enter the "Pop Overture," a clever technique where a song hints at its chorus within the initial moments, engaging the listener and encouraging them to stay for the full musical journey. 

To keep the dreaded "skip rate" at bay, artists began to craft shorter songs. Lengthy instrumental intros were swapped for immediate engagement, resulting in a significant reduction in the average duration of hit songs. In 2021, nearly two-thirds of chart-toppers clocked in at under three minutes, a departure from the days when a four-minute+ song was the norm.

As individual songs shrank, albums expanded. Streaming listeners, keen to maximize their musical experience, embraced longer albums. More songs equaled more income, with Taylor Swift's "Midnights" dominating the Hot 100 chart by offering an extensive musical journey. The average complexity of melodies had fallen over time, with two big drops in 1975 and 2000, as well as a smaller drop in 1996. The overriding pattern shows decreasing complexity and increasing note density in popular melodies over time, especially since 2000.

Streaming opened doors for genres that once struggled for visibility. Latin and K-Pop artists rose to prominence on Spotify's Global Top 100, fostering a rich tapestry of cross-genre collaborations. Remixes featuring artists from different backgrounds expanded a song's appeal and audience, exemplified by Justin Bieber's "Sorry (Latino Remix)" with J. Balvin.

While artistic creativity remains paramount, commercial considerations loom large. The streaming economy's dynamics, with its emphasis on plays, playlists, and recommendations, have compelled artists and labels to explore innovative strategies to maximize reach and revenue.

In this ever-evolving landscape of sound, music's essence has been reshaped by the streaming revolution. The emphasis on retaining listeners and optimizing plays has redefined how songs are crafted and albums are composed. With an emphasis on retaining listener engagement and maximizing plays, the industry has adapted to the evolving preferences and economics of the streaming era.

REFERENCES

Streaming is changing the sound of music(https://www.wsj.com/arts-culture/music/streaming-is-changing-the-sound-of-music-182dc907)

https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=37531602

https://www.reddit.com/r/dataisbeautiful/comments/e5htxy/are_songs_getting_shorter_or_just_our_attention/

Hamilton, M., Pearce, M. Trajectories and revolutions in popular melody based on U.S. charts from 1950 to 2023. Sci Rep 14, 14749 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-64571-x

Acknowledgements: ChatGPT, Bard and Bing image creator

A Leap Towards Curing Genetic Deafness

In recent years, gene therapy has surfaced as a beacon of hope for those grappling with genetic hearing loss, showcasing promising results in neonatal mice. However, when it comes to adults, the complex structure of the cochlea, nestled within the temporal bone, has made treatment significantly more challenging. A recent study reported results that could change this narrative, opening new avenues in auditory research with the potential to revolutionize treatment for progressive genetic-mediated hearing loss in adults.

The crux of this breakthrough lies in the innovative method of gene delivery through the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a channel that has not been explored extensively in previous research. This study illuminates the lymphatic-like characteristics exhibited by the cochlear aqueduct in mice, indicating a pathway for the diffusion of gene therapy to the inner ear. Leveraging in vivo time-lapse magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and optical fluorescence microscopy, the research team traced the journey of large-particle tracers from the CSF to the inner ear, demonstrating a viable route for targeted gene delivery.

By utilizing a single intracisternal injection of an adeno-associated virus carrying the Slc17A8 gene, known for encoding the vesicular glutamate transporter-3 (VGLUT3), the researchers successfully restored hearing in adult deaf mice. This restoration was achieved without any discernible ectopic expression in the brain or the liver, emphasizing the precision of this approach.

This pivotal study marks a significant stride in auditory research, presenting a feasible and innovative method to treat genetic deafness in adults, a segment that was previously considered hard to reach due to the risks associated with potential damage to inner ear structures. The CSF administration through the cochlear aqueducts emerges as a promising route, promising not just advancements in rodent studies but potentially paving the way for human applications.

In essence, this research might herald a new era where genetic deafness in adults could be treated more effectively and safely. As the world of medical science stands on the brink of this significant advancement, it brings renewed hope and anticipation for individuals affected by progressive genetic-mediated hearing loss, inching us closer to a future where hearing restoration is within reach for all.

REFERENCE

Mathiesen BK, Miyakoshi LM, Cederroth CR, Tserga E, Versteegh C, Bork PA, Hauglund NL, Gomolka RS, Mori Y, Edvall NK, Rouse S. Delivery of gene therapy through a cerebrospinal fluid conduit to rescue hearing in adult mice. Science Translational Medicine. 2023 Jun 28;15(702):eabq3916.